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difference principle

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1 difference principle

фил., эк. принцип дифференциации (если принять абсолютную ценность роулзианского принципа всеобщего равенства, то в экономике безоговорочное следование этому принципу может привести к более низкому уровню благосостояния, так как более талантливых людей может мотивировать к более эффективному труду возможность дополнительного дохода; поэтому допустима некоторая степень неравенства, если при этом наиболее бедным людям будет лучше, чем в ситуации полного равенства; принцип сформулирован Дж. Роулзом)

See:

Rawls, John Bordley, Rawls, John Bordley

Англо-русский экономический словарь > difference principle
2 difference

n

1) разница; различие, отличие

2) разногласие; расхождение

- acceptable difference
- age-to-age differences
- balanced differences
- cash difference
- double difference
- exchange difference
- external difference
- genetic difference
- great difference
- gross difference
- important difference
- income difference
- major differences
- minor difference
- net difference
- price difference
- real or fancied product differences
- regional differences
- significant difference
- small differences
- tariff difference
- weighing difference
- difference in the amount
- difference in assortment
- difference in colour
- difference in the cost
- difference in costs
- difference in currency rates
- difference in exchange
- differences in positions
- difference in prices
- difference in quality
- difference in quantity
- difference in quotations
- difference in rates
- difference in the rate of exchange
- difference in value
- difference in weight
- difference of opinion
- difference of potentials
- difference of principle
- adjust a difference
- arrange a difference
- claim the difference
- contain differences
- cover the difference
- eliminate differences
- equalize the difference
- iron differences
- level out differences
- meet the difference
- overcome differences
- pay the difference
- reflect the difference
- repay the difference
- resolve differences
- settle differences
- smooth out differences
- solve differences
- speculate for differences
- speculate in differences
- split the difference

English-russian dctionary of contemporary Economics > difference
3 difference of principle

Экономика: принципиальное разногласие

Универсальный англо-русский словарь > difference of principle
4 difference of principle

принципиальное разногласие

English-russian dctionary of contemporary Economics > difference of principle
5 (a) difference in appearance

a difference in appearance (in smb's social status, in ranks, in intelligence, in principle) различие по/во внешности (по социальному положению, по званиям/в званиях, по уму, по принципам/в принципах)

English-Russian combinatory dictionary > (a) difference in appearance
6 If you pick up a starving dog and make him prosperous, he will not bite you. This is the principle difference between a dog and a man.

<01> Если Вы подберете голодную собаку и устроите ей роскошную жизнь, она никогда не укусит Вас. В этом главная разница между собакой и человеком. Twain (Твен).

Англо-русский словарь цитат, пословиц, поговорок и идиом > If you pick up a starving dog and make him prosperous, he will not bite you. This is the principle difference between a dog and a man.
7 distributive justice

1) пол., соц., эк., фил. справедливость распределения, распределительная справедливость (проблема распределения благ между людьми в обществе; проблема включает три большие аспекта: ЧТО нужно распределять (блага, ресурсы и т. п.), МЕЖДУ КЕМ нужно распределять (индивиды, группы, организации и т. п.) и КАК нужно распределять (какой принцип распределения считается справедливым); принцип распределения может быть различным в зависимости от выбранной идеологии: поровну, по заслугам, по потребностям и т. д.)

See:

procedural justice, substantive justice, corrective justice, distribution function, difference principle, desert-based principle

2) упр. справедливость распределения [вознаграждения\]* (различные управленческие правила, касающиеся определения вознаграждения сотрудников; напр.: а) отношение к подчиненным должно основываться на объективных обычаях и ценностях населения страны, в которой действует организация; б) двух подобных друг другу работников нужно рассматривать в одних и тех же аспектах, в) поощрять нужно личные усилия работника, которые являются результатом его сознательных действий, а не природные данные, на которые он повлиять не может, и т. д.)

See:

face-work

* * *

справедливость в распределении

Англо-русский экономический словарь > distributive justice
8 Rawls, John Bordley

перс.

фил. Ролз, Джон Бордли (1921-2002; американский философ и политолог; профессор Гарвадского университета; в книге "A Theory of Justice" (1971) представил ряд оригинальный концепций в области теории справедливости, которые оказали большое влияние на развитие науки; по его имени названа одна из функций общественного благосостояния)

See:

Rawlsian welfare function, liberty principle, difference principle, justice-as-fairness, original position, veil of ignorance, overlapping consensus, public reason, Rowlsian criterion

Англо-русский экономический словарь > Rawls, John Bordley
9 Rowlsian criterion

эк. критерий Ролза (критерий общественного благосостояния, состоящий в максимизации полезности тех членов общества, благосостояние которых является минимальным)

Syn:

maximin criterion

See:

social welfare criterion, Rawlsian welfare function, difference principle

Англо-русский экономический словарь > Rowlsian criterion
10 fundamental

1. adjective
(of great importance; essential; basic: Respect for law and order is fundamental to a peaceful society.) fundamental

2. noun
(a basic or essential part of any thing: Learning to read is one of the fundamentals of education.) fundamento, piedra angular, aspecto básico

- fundamentally

fundamental adj fundamental

fundamental adjetivo fundamental
fundamental adjetivo fundamental
la diferencia fundamental, the basic difference ' fundamental' also found in these entries: Spanish: elemental - primordial - principio - sustancial - sustantiva - sustantivo - básico - esencial - primero - sagrado - vital English: basic - cardinal - essential - fundamental - hygiene - main - primal - primary - vital - central - imperative - part

fundamental

tr[fʌndə'mentəl]

adjective

1 (central, basic) fundamental, básico,-a

2 (necessary, essential) esencial (to, para)

plural noun fundamentals

1 (essential part, basic rule) fundamentos nombre masculino plural, reglas nombre femenino plural básicas

fundamental [.fʌndə'mɛntəl] adj

1) basic: fundamental, básico

2) principal: esencial, principal

3) innate: innato, intrínseco

fundamental n

: fundamento m

fundamental

adj.

• fundamental adj.

• principio, -a adj.

n.

• fundamento s.m.

'fʌndə'mentḷ
adjective

a) ( basic) <principle/error> fundamental, básico

to be fundamental TO something/-ING — ser* fundamental or básico para algo/+ inf

b) ( essential) <skill/constituent> esencial

c) (intrinsic, innate) < absurdityuth> intrínseco; < optimism> innato

[ˌfʌndǝ'mentl]
1. ADJ

1) (=basic) [question, problem, principle] fundamental

they are being denied their fundamental human rights — se les está privando de los derechos humanos fundamentales

2) (=profound, great) [change, difference] fundamental

it is a fundamental mistake to think that... — es un error fundamental pensar que...

3) (=essential) fundamental, esencial

to be fundamental to sth — ser fundamental or esencial para algo

it is fundamental to our understanding of the problem — es fundamental or esencial para que entendamos el problema

4) (=intrinsic) [honesty, good sense] intrínseco

2.

NPL

the fundamentals — los fundamentos, lo básico

* * *
['fʌndə'mentḷ]
adjective

a) ( basic) <principle/error> fundamental, básico

to be fundamental TO something/-ING — ser* fundamental or básico para algo/+ inf

b) ( essential) <skill/constituent> esencial

c) (intrinsic, innate) <absurdity/truth> intrínseco; < optimism> innato

English-spanish dictionary > fundamental
11 fundamental

adjective

grundlegend (to für); elementar [Bedürfnisse]; (primary, original) Grund[struktur, -form, -typus]

* * *
1. adjective
(of great importance; essential; basic: Respect for law and order is fundamental to a peaceful society.) grundlegend
2. noun
(a basic or essential part of any thing: Learning to read is one of the fundamentals of education.) die Grundlage

- academic.ru/29886/fundamentally">fundamentally

* * *

fun·da·men·tal

[ˌfʌndəˈment^əl, AM -t̬^əl]

adj grundlegend

▪ to be \fundamental to doing sth für etw akk unabdingbar sein

\fundamental difference wesentlicher Unterschied

to be of \fundamental importance to sth für etw akk von zentraler Bedeutung sein

\fundamental issues Hintergrunddaten pl

\fundamental need/principle/right Grundbedürfnis nt/-prinzip nt/-recht nt

\fundamental problem grundsätzliches [o grundlegendes] Problem

\fundamental question entscheidende Frage

\fundamental research [or analysis] Grundlagenforschung f

\fundamental tenet zentraler Lehrsatz

* * *
["fʌndə'mentl]
1. adj

1) (= essential) issue, question, concept grundlegend; reason eigentlich; point zentral; feature, part wesentlich

fundamental principle/right/beliefs — Grundprinzip nt/-recht nt/-überzeugungen pl

fundamental mathematical concepts — Grundbegriffe pl der Mathematik

of fundamental importance — von grundlegender Bedeutung

carbon is fundamental to life —

fundamental to impressionism was the use of bright colours — die Verwendung von leuchtenden Farben war grundlegend für den Impressionismus

2) (= basic) problem, difference, contradiction grundsätzlich; (= basic and deep) change, revolution, shift grundlegend, umwälzend; (= elementary) mistake, error, flaw grundlegend, fundamental

I don't doubt his fundamental goodness — ich zweifle nicht daran, dass er im Grunde ein guter Mensch ist

his fundamental ignorance of this subject — seine fundamentale Unkenntnis auf diesem Gebiet

fundamental structure/form — Grundstruktur f/-form f

fundamental research — Grundlagenforschung f

3) (MUS) Grund-

fundamental note/frequency — Grundton m/-frequenz f

2. pl

fundamentals (of subject) — Grundbegriffe pl; (of a problem) Grundlagen pl

the fundamentals of physics — die Grundbegriffe pl der Physik

to get down to (the) fundamentals — bis zu den Grundlagen vordringen

* * *

fundamental [ˌfʌndəˈmentl]

A adj (adv → fundamentally)

1. als Grundlage dienend, grundlegend, wesentlich, fundamental (to für), Haupt…

2. grundsätzlich, elementar

3. Grund…, Fundamental…:

fundamental bass → B 2 b;

fundamental colo(u)r Grundfarbe f;

fundamental data grundlegende Tatsachen;

fundamental freedoms Grundfreiheiten pl;

fundamental frequency ELEK Grundfrequenz f;

fundamental idea Grundbegriff m;

fundamental law MATH, PHYS Hauptsatz m;

fundamental particle PHYS Elementarteilchen n;

fundamental research Grundlagenforschung f;

fundamental tone → B 2 a;

fundamental type BIOL Grundform f

B s

1. Grundlage f, -prinzip n, -begriff m, pl auch Grundzüge pl, Fundament n

2. MUS

a) Grundton m

b) Fundamentalbass m

3. PHYS Fundamentaleinheit f

4. ELEK Grundwelle f

* * *

adjective

grundlegend (to für); elementar [Bedürfnisse]; (primary, original) Grund[struktur, -form, -typus]

* * *

adj.

grundlegend adj.

grundsätzlich adj.

English-german dictionary > fundamental
12 Babbage, Charles

SUBJECT AREA: Electronics and information technology

[br]

b. 26 December 1791 Walworth, Surrey, England

d. 18 October 1871 London, England

[br]

English mathematician who invented the forerunner of the modern computer.

[br]

Charles Babbage was the son of a banker, Benjamin Babbage, and was a sickly child who had a rather haphazard education at private schools near Exeter and later at Enfield. Even as a child, he was inordinately fond of algebra, which he taught himself. He was conversant with several advanced mathematical texts, so by the time he entered Trinity College, Cambridge, in 1811, he was ahead of his tutors. In his third year he moved to Peterhouse, whence he graduated in 1814, taking his MA in 1817. He first contributed to the Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society in 1815, and was elected a fellow of that body in 1816. He was one of the founders of the Astronomical Society in 1820 and served in high office in it.

While he was still at Cambridge, in 1812, he had the first idea of calculating numerical tables by machinery. This was his first difference engine, which worked on the principle of repeatedly adding a common difference. He built a small model of an engine working on this principle between 1820 and 1822, and in July of the latter year he read an enthusiastically received note about it to the Astronomical Society. The following year he was awarded the Society's first gold medal. He submitted details of his invention to Sir Humphry Davy, President of the Royal Society; the Society reported favourably and the Government became interested, and following a meeting with the Chancellor of the Exchequer Babbage was awarded a grant of £1,500. Work proceeded and was carried on for four years under the direction of Joseph Clement.

In 1827 Babbage went abroad for a year on medical advice. There he studied foreign workshops and factories, and in 1832 he published his observations in On the Economy of Machinery and Manufactures. While abroad, he received the news that he had been appointed Lucasian Professor of Mathematics at Cambridge University. He held the Chair until 1839, although he neither resided in College nor gave any lectures. For this he was paid between £80 and £90 a year! Differences arose between Babbage and Clement. Manufacture was moved from Clement's works in Lambeth, London, to new, fireproof buildings specially erected by the Government near Babbage's house in Dorset Square, London. Clement made a large claim for compensation and, when it was refused, withdrew his workers as well as all the special tools he had made up for the job. No work was possible for the next fifteen months, during which Babbage conceived the idea of his "analytical engine". He approached the Government with this, but it was not until eight years later, in 1842, that he received the reply that the expense was considered too great for further backing and that the Government was abandoning the project. This was in spite of the demonstration and perfectly satisfactory operation of a small section of the analytical engine at the International Exhibition of 1862. It is said that the demands made on manufacture in the production of his engines had an appreciable influence in improving the standard of machine tools, whilst similar benefits accrued from his development of a system of notation for the movements of machine elements. His opposition to street organ-grinders was a notable eccentricity; he estimated that a quarter of his mental effort was wasted by the effect of noise on his concentration.

[br]

Principal Honours and Distinctions

FRS 1816. Astronomical Society Gold Medal 1823.

Bibliography

Babbage wrote eighty works, including: 1864, Passages from the Life of a Philosopher.

1832, On the Economy of Manufacture and Machinery.

July 1822, Letter to Sir Humphry Davy, PRS, on the Application of Machinery to the purpose of calculating and printing Mathematical Tables.

Further Reading

1961, Charles Babbage and His Calculating Engines: Selected Writings by Charles Babbage and Others, eds Philip and Emily Morrison, New York: Dover Publications.

IMcN

Biographical history of technology > Babbage, Charles
13 set up

[ʹsetʹʌp] phr v
1. помещать, ставить, класть

to set up a picture on the floor - поставить картину на пол

the portrait was set up on the stage - портрет был установлен на сцене

special seats had to be set up around the sides of the hall - по бокам зала пришлось поставить дополнительные ряды стульев

a Latin inscription was set up on the tablet - на мемориальной доске была сделана латинская надпись

2. поднимать, ставить

to set up ninepins again - поднимать упавшие кегли

3. вывешивать ( для обозрения)

to set up a notice - вывесить объявление

4. воздвигать, устанавливать, ставить

to set up a monument - воздвигнуть памятник

to set up a post [a fence] - ставить столб [забор]

5. возводить (на престол и т. п.)

6. основывать, учреждать

to set up a company [a business] - основать компанию [дело]

to set up a government - сформировать правительство

to set up a committee - организовать /учредить/ комитет

to set up a laboratory - создать лабораторию

to set up house - начать (вести) семейную жизнь

to set up an account - открыть счёт ( в банке)

the journal was set up in 1942 - этот журнал начал выходить /был основан/ в 1942 г.

it wasn't till later that the camp and the aerodrome were set up - лишь позже были построены посёлок и аэродром

7. вводить, устанавливать

to set up new arrangements - устанавливать /вводить/ новые порядки

to set up a custom - вводить обычай

to set up a record - спорт. установить рекорд

8. открывать (какое-л. дело)

to set up as a grocer [as a chemist, as a lawyer] - открыть бакалейную торговлю /лавку/ [(свою) аптеку, юридическую контору]

to set up in trade - открывать торговое предприятие

to set up oneself in business, to set up for oneself - открыть собственное дело (свою лавку, контору и т. п.)

9. помочь (кому-л.) устроиться

to set smb. up in business - помочь кому-л. открыть торговое дело /магазин/

the legacy set him up in his profession - благодаря доставшемуся наследству он смог работать по специальности

to set smb. up in life - ≅ давать кому-л. путёвку в жизнь

10. выдвигать, предлагать

to set up a counter claim - предъявлять /выдвигать/ встречный иск

to set up a candidate [a claimant] - выдвигать кандидата [претендента]

to set up a principle - выдвигать принцип

the latest theory to be set up - последняя из выдвигаемых теорий

11. излагать, формулировать

to set up a principle [a fundamental difference] - сформулировать принцип [основное различие]

12. подготавливать; планировать

to set up a bank robbery - подготовить ограбление банка

13. поднимать (крик, шум и т. п.)

to set up a hullabaloo [a howl, a loud cry] - поднимать шум [вой, громкий крик]

to set up a row [a scuffling] - поднимать скандал [возню]

to set up a cry for home rule - провозгласить лозунг самоуправления

the boy set up an alarm - мальчик поднял тревогу

14. снабжать, обеспечивать

to set smb. up with /in/ books [clothing] - снабжать кого-л. книгами [одеждой]

to set smb. up in funds - обеспечивать кого-л. деньгами

15. восстанавливать (силы, здоровье)

the country air set him up again - деревенский воздух восстановил его здоровье

the medicine set him up - это лекарство поставило его на ноги

a fortnight in the country [a holiday] will set you up again - двухнедельное пребывание в деревне [отдых] вернёт вам силы

16. тренировать, физически развивать; закалять

physically she was not well set up - физически она была слабо развита

you want some good walks to set you up - для тренировки вам необходимы длительные прогулки

a month in the ranks sets up a recruit wonderfully - месяц пребывания в армии является прекрасной закалкой для новобранца

17. вызывать, причинять

the cold air set up an irritation in his throat - от холодного воздуха у него началось раздражение в горле

18. полигр. набирать

to set up type - набирать шрифт

to set up a book [a page] - набирать книгу [полосу]

to set up a word in capitals - набрать слово заглавными буквами

19. выдавать себя за кого-л.; безосновательно считать себя (кем-л.)

to set up as an expert - считать себя знатоком

he set himself up as an authority [for a wit] - он претендовал на авторитет [на остроумие]

20. обыкн. pass гордиться (чем-л.), проявлять удовлетворение

I am quite set up with my new job - я вполне удовлетворён своей новой работой

21. набивать, делать ( чучело)

22. редк. восстанавливать, подстрекать

23. тех. собирать, монтировать; налаживать ( станок)

24. 1) платить за выпивку ( в баре)

2) угощать (чем-л.)

25. карт. объявлять ( масть)

to set up spades - объявить пики

НБАРС > set up
14 Cecil, Revd William

SUBJECT AREA: Steam and internal combustion engines

[br]

b. 1792 England

d. 1882 England

[br]

English inventor of a gas vacuum engine.

[br]

Admitted to Magdalene College, Cambridge, in 1810, Cecil was elected a Fellow in 1814. The son of an Anglican priest, he was himself ordained in 1820; he devoted his life to the Church of England, but he also showed a commendable aptitude for technical matters. His paper on a means of motive power, presented to the Cambridge Philosophical Society in 1820, created immense interest. A working model of his engine, using hydrogen as fuel, was demonstrated during the presentation. The operating principle required that a vacuum be produced in a closed cylinder by quenching a burning flame, the pressure difference between the vacuum and atmosphere then being used to produce the working stroke. Cecil's engine was never manufactured in any number, but the working principle was adapted by other pioneers, namely Samuel Brown, in 1824, and, more successfully, Otto- Langen in 1867.

[br]

Bibliography

1820, "On the application of hydrogen gas to produce a moving power in machinery", Transactions of the Cambridge Philosophical Society 1(2):217–39.

Further Reading

John Venn, Alumni Cantabrienses Part II (1752–1900): p. 567.

KAB

Biographical history of technology > Cecil, Revd William
15 Artificial Intelligence

   1) Programs and the Complexity of Human Mental Processes

   In my opinion, none of [these programs] does even remote justice to the complexity of human mental processes. Unlike men, "artificially intelligent" programs tend to be single minded, undistractable, and unemotional. (Neisser, 1967, p. 9)

   2) Artificial Intelligence Is an Engineering Discipline

   Future progress in [artificial intelligence] will depend on the development of both practical and theoretical knowledge.... As regards theoretical knowledge, some have sought a unified theory of artificial intelligence. My view is that artificial intelligence is (or soon will be) an engineering discipline since its primary goal is to build things. (Nilsson, 1971, pp. vii-viii)

   3) A Sceptical View of Artificial Intelligence

   Most workers in AI [artificial intelligence] research and in related fields confess to a pronounced feeling of disappointment in what has been achieved in the last 25 years. Workers entered the field around 1950, and even around 1960, with high hopes that are very far from being realized in 1972. In no part of the field have the discoveries made so far produced the major impact that was then promised.... In the meantime, claims and predictions regarding the potential results of AI research had been publicized which went even farther than the expectations of the majority of workers in the field, whose embarrassments have been added to by the lamentable failure of such inﬂated predictions....

   When able and respected scientists write in letters to the present author that AI, the major goal of computing science, represents "another step in the general process of evolution"; that possibilities in the 1980s include an all-purpose intelligence on a human-scale knowledge base; that awe-inspiring possibilities suggest themselves based on machine intelligence exceeding human intelligence by the year 2000 [one has the right to be skeptical]. (Lighthill, 1972, p. 17)

   4) Just as Astronomy Succeeded Astrology, the Discovery of Intellectual Processes in Machines Should Lead to a Science, Eventually

   Just as astronomy succeeded astrology, following Kepler's discovery of planetary regularities, the discoveries of these many principles in empirical explorations on intellectual processes in machines should lead to a science, eventually. (Minsky & Papert, 1973, p. 11)

   5) Problems in Machine Intelligence Arise Because Things Obvious to Any Person Are Not Represented in the Program

   Many problems arise in experiments on machine intelligence because things obvious to any person are not represented in any program. One can pull with a string, but one cannot push with one.... Simple facts like these caused serious problems when Charniak attempted to extend Bobrow's "Student" program to more realistic applications, and they have not been faced up to until now. (Minsky & Papert, 1973, p. 77)

   6) The Meaning of a Symbolic Description

   What do we mean by [a symbolic] "description"? We do not mean to suggest that our descriptions must be made of strings of ordinary language words (although they might be). The simplest kind of description is a structure in which some features of a situation are represented by single ("primitive") symbols, and relations between those features are represented by other symbols-or by other features of the way the description is put together. (Minsky & Papert, 1973, p. 11)

   7) The Principle of Artificial Intelligence

   [AI is] the use of computer programs and programming techniques to cast light on the principles of intelligence in general and human thought in particular. (Boden, 1977, p. 5)

   8) Artificial Intelligence Recognizes the Need for Knowledge in Its Systems

   The word you look for and hardly ever see in the early AI literature is the word knowledge. They didn't believe you have to know anything, you could always rework it all.... In fact 1967 is the turning point in my mind when there was enough feeling that the old ideas of general principles had to go.... I came up with an argument for what I called the primacy of expertise, and at the time I called the other guys the generalists. (Moses, quoted in McCorduck, 1979, pp. 228-229)

   9) Artificial Intelligence Is Psychology in a Particularly Pure and Abstract Form

   The basic idea of cognitive science is that intelligent beings are semantic engines-in other words, automatic formal systems with interpretations under which they consistently make sense. We can now see why this includes psychology and artificial intelligence on a more or less equal footing: people and intelligent computers (if and when there are any) turn out to be merely different manifestations of the same underlying phenomenon. Moreover, with universal hardware, any semantic engine can in principle be formally imitated by a computer if only the right program can be found. And that will guarantee semantic imitation as well, since (given the appropriate formal behavior) the semantics is "taking care of itself" anyway. Thus we also see why, from this perspective, artificial intelligence can be regarded as psychology in a particularly pure and abstract form. The same fundamental structures are under investigation, but in AI, all the relevant parameters are under direct experimental control (in the programming), without any messy physiology or ethics to get in the way. (Haugeland, 1981b, p. 31)

    10) There Are Many Types of Reasoning

   There are many different kinds of reasoning one might imagine:

    Formal reasoning involves the syntactic manipulation of data structures to deduce new ones following prespecified rules of inference. Mathematical logic is the archetypical formal representation. Procedural reasoning uses simulation to answer questions and solve problems. When we use a program to answer What is the sum of 3 and 4? it uses, or "runs," a procedural model of arithmetic. Reasoning by analogy seems to be a very natural mode of thought for humans but, so far, difficult to accomplish in AI programs. The idea is that when you ask the question Can robins ﬂy? the system might reason that "robins are like sparrows, and I know that sparrows can ﬂy, so robins probably can ﬂy."

    Generalization and abstraction are also natural reasoning process for humans that are difficult to pin down well enough to implement in a program. If one knows that Robins have wings, that Sparrows have wings, and that Blue jays have wings, eventually one will believe that All birds have wings. This capability may be at the core of most human learning, but it has not yet become a useful technique in AI.... Meta- level reasoning is demonstrated by the way one answers the question What is Paul Newman's telephone number? You might reason that "if I knew Paul Newman's number, I would know that I knew it, because it is a notable fact." This involves using "knowledge about what you know," in particular, about the extent of your knowledge and about the importance of certain facts. Recent research in psychology and AI indicates that meta-level reasoning may play a central role in human cognitive processing. (Barr & Feigenbaum, 1981, pp. 146-147)

    11) Programs Are Beginning to Do Things That Critics Have Asserted to Be Impossible

   Suffice it to say that programs already exist that can do things-or, at the very least, appear to be beginning to do things-which ill-informed critics have asserted a priori to be impossible. Examples include: perceiving in a holistic as opposed to an atomistic way; using language creatively; translating sensibly from one language to another by way of a language-neutral semantic representation; planning acts in a broad and sketchy fashion, the details being decided only in execution; distinguishing between different species of emotional reaction according to the psychological context of the subject. (Boden, 1981, p. 33)

    12) The Synthesis of Man and Machine

   Can the synthesis of Man and Machine ever be stable, or will the purely organic component become such a hindrance that it has to be discarded? If this eventually happens-and I have... good reasons for thinking that it must-we have nothing to regret and certainly nothing to fear. (Clarke, 1984, p. 243)

    13) The Thesis of Good Old-Fashioned Artificial Intelligence (GOFAI)

   The thesis of GOFAI... is not that the processes underlying intelligence can be described symbolically... but that they are symbolic. (Haugeland, 1985, p. 113)

    14) Artificial Intelligence Provides a Useful Approach to Psychological and Psychiatric Theory Formation

   It is all very well formulating psychological and psychiatric theories verbally but, when using natural language (even technical jargon), it is difficult to recognise when a theory is complete; oversights are all too easily made, gaps too readily left. This is a point which is generally recognised to be true and it is for precisely this reason that the behavioural sciences attempt to follow the natural sciences in using "classical" mathematics as a more rigorous descriptive language. However, it is an unfortunate fact that, with a few notable exceptions, there has been a marked lack of success in this application. It is my belief that a different approach-a different mathematics-is needed, and that AI provides just this approach. (Hand, quoted in Hand, 1985, pp. 6-7)

    15) Four Kinds of Artificial Intelligence

   We might distinguish among four kinds of AI.

   ♦ Nonpsychological AI

   Research of this kind involves building and programming computers to perform tasks which, to paraphrase Marvin Minsky, would require intelligence if they were done by us. Researchers in nonpsychological AI make no claims whatsoever about the psychological realism of their programs or the devices they build, that is, about whether or not computers perform tasks as humans do.

   ♦ Weak Psychological AI

   Research here is guided by the view that the computer is a useful tool in the study of mind. In particular, we can write computer programs or build devices that simulate alleged psychological processes in humans and then test our predictions about how the alleged processes work. We can weave these programs and devices together with other programs and devices that simulate different alleged mental processes and thereby test the degree to which the AI system as a whole simulates human mentality. According to weak psychological AI, working with computer models is a way of refining and testing hypotheses about processes that are allegedly realized in human minds.

   ♦ Strong Psychological AI

... According to this view, our minds are computers and therefore can be duplicated by other computers. Sherry Turkle writes that the "real ambition is of mythic proportions, making a general purpose intelligence, a mind." (Turkle, 1984, p. 240) The authors of a major text announce that "the ultimate goal of AI research is to build a person or, more humbly, an animal." (Charniak & McDermott, 1985, p. 7)

   ♦ Suprapsychological AI

   Research in this field, like strong psychological AI, takes seriously the functionalist view that mentality can be realized in many different types of physical devices. Suprapsychological AI, however, accuses strong psychological AI of being chauvinisticof being only interested in human intelligence! Suprapsychological AI claims to be interested in all the conceivable ways intelligence can be realized. (Flanagan, 1991, pp. 241-242)

    16) Determination of Relevance of Rules in Particular Contexts

   Even if the [rules] were stored in a context-free form the computer still couldn't use them. To do that the computer requires rules enabling it to draw on just those [ rules] which are relevant in each particular context. Determination of relevance will have to be based on further facts and rules, but the question will again arise as to which facts and rules are relevant for making each particular determination. One could always invoke further facts and rules to answer this question, but of course these must be only the relevant ones. And so it goes. It seems that AI workers will never be able to get started here unless they can settle the problem of relevance beforehand by cataloguing types of context and listing just those facts which are relevant in each. (Dreyfus & Dreyfus, 1986, p. 80)

    17) Form and Content Are Not Fundamentally Different

   Perhaps the single most important idea to artificial intelligence is that there is no fundamental difference between form and content, that meaning can be captured in a set of symbols such as a semantic net. (G. Johnson, 1986, p. 250)

    18) The Assumption That the Mind Is a Formal System

   Artificial intelligence is based on the assumption that the mind can be described as some kind of formal system manipulating symbols that stand for things in the world. Thus it doesn't matter what the brain is made of, or what it uses for tokens in the great game of thinking. Using an equivalent set of tokens and rules, we can do thinking with a digital computer, just as we can play chess using cups, salt and pepper shakers, knives, forks, and spoons. Using the right software, one system (the mind) can be mapped into the other (the computer). (G. Johnson, 1986, p. 250)

    19) A Statement of the Primary and Secondary Purposes of Artificial Intelligence

   The primary goal of Artificial Intelligence is to make machines smarter.

   The secondary goals of Artificial Intelligence are to understand what intelligence is (the Nobel laureate purpose) and to make machines more useful (the entrepreneurial purpose). (Winston, 1987, p. 1)

    20) Mathematical Logic Provides the Basis for Theory in AI

   The theoretical ideas of older branches of engineering are captured in the language of mathematics. We contend that mathematical logic provides the basis for theory in AI. Although many computer scientists already count logic as fundamental to computer science in general, we put forward an even stronger form of the logic-is-important argument....

   AI deals mainly with the problem of representing and using declarative (as opposed to procedural) knowledge. Declarative knowledge is the kind that is expressed as sentences, and AI needs a language in which to state these sentences. Because the languages in which this knowledge usually is originally captured (natural languages such as English) are not suitable for computer representations, some other language with the appropriate properties must be used. It turns out, we think, that the appropriate properties include at least those that have been uppermost in the minds of logicians in their development of logical languages such as the predicate calculus. Thus, we think that any language for expressing knowledge in AI systems must be at least as expressive as the first-order predicate calculus. (Genesereth & Nilsson, 1987, p. viii)

    21) Perceptual Structures Can Be Represented as Lists of Elementary Propositions

   In artificial intelligence studies, perceptual structures are represented as assemblages of description lists, the elementary components of which are propositions asserting that certain relations hold among elements. (Chase & Simon, 1988, p. 490)

    22) Definitions of Artificial Intelligence

   Artificial intelligence (AI) is sometimes defined as the study of how to build and/or program computers to enable them to do the sorts of things that minds can do. Some of these things are commonly regarded as requiring intelligence: offering a medical diagnosis and/or prescription, giving legal or scientific advice, proving theorems in logic or mathematics. Others are not, because they can be done by all normal adults irrespective of educational background (and sometimes by non-human animals too), and typically involve no conscious control: seeing things in sunlight and shadows, finding a path through cluttered terrain, fitting pegs into holes, speaking one's own native tongue, and using one's common sense. Because it covers AI research dealing with both these classes of mental capacity, this definition is preferable to one describing AI as making computers do "things that would require intelligence if done by people." However, it presupposes that computers could do what minds can do, that they might really diagnose, advise, infer, and understand. One could avoid this problematic assumption (and also side-step questions about whether computers do things in the same way as we do) by defining AI instead as "the development of computers whose observable performance has features which in humans we would attribute to mental processes." This bland characterization would be acceptable to some AI workers, especially amongst those focusing on the production of technological tools for commercial purposes. But many others would favour a more controversial definition, seeing AI as the science of intelligence in general-or, more accurately, as the intellectual core of cognitive science. As such, its goal is to provide a systematic theory that can explain (and perhaps enable us to replicate) both the general categories of intentionality and the diverse psychological capacities grounded in them. (Boden, 1990b, pp. 1-2)

    23) The Computer Can Not Be a Model of the Mind

   Because the ability to store data somewhat corresponds to what we call memory in human beings, and because the ability to follow logical procedures somewhat corresponds to what we call reasoning in human beings, many members of the cult have concluded that what computers do somewhat corresponds to what we call thinking. It is no great difficulty to persuade the general public of that conclusion since computers process data very fast in small spaces well below the level of visibility; they do not look like other machines when they are at work. They seem to be running along as smoothly and silently as the brain does when it remembers and reasons and thinks. On the other hand, those who design and build computers know exactly how the machines are working down in the hidden depths of their semiconductors. Computers can be taken apart, scrutinized, and put back together. Their activities can be tracked, analyzed, measured, and thus clearly understood-which is far from possible with the brain. This gives rise to the tempting assumption on the part of the builders and designers that computers can tell us something about brains, indeed, that the computer can serve as a model of the mind, which then comes to be seen as some manner of information processing machine, and possibly not as good at the job as the machine. (Roszak, 1994, pp. xiv-xv)

    24) Computers Will Not Always Be Inferior to Human Brains

   The inner workings of the human mind are far more intricate than the most complicated systems of modern technology. Researchers in the field of artificial intelligence have been attempting to develop programs that will enable computers to display intelligent behavior. Although this field has been an active one for more than thirty-five years and has had many notable successes, AI researchers still do not know how to create a program that matches human intelligence. No existing program can recall facts, solve problems, reason, learn, and process language with human facility. This lack of success has occurred not because computers are inferior to human brains but rather because we do not yet know in sufficient detail how intelligence is organized in the brain. (Anderson, 1995, p. 2)

Historical dictionary of quotations in cognitive science > Artificial Intelligence
16 observe

1. I
abs

allow me to observe разрешите мне заметить...; you were going to observe, sir? вы хотели что-то сказать, сэр?; as I was going to observe a) как я собирался заметить; б) что я и хотел сказать
2. II
observe in some manner

1) observe accurately (carefully, systematically, etc.) внимательно и т.д. изучать, вести тщательное и т.д. наблюдение, we can observe better from above нам лучше будет следить /наблюдать/ сверху; he observes keenly but says little он мало говорит, но все видит /замечает/

2) as he justly (well, cleverly, half-jokingly, etc.) observed как он справедливо и т.д. заметил
3. III
1) observe smth., smb. observe the moon (the sky, an eclipse, a sunrise, the behaviour of birds, a surgical operation, the proceedings, a patient, a child, etc.) вести наблюдение за луной и т.д.; observe the enemy's movements следить за (пере)движением противника

2) observe smth. observe the fineness of his taste (a great difference between them, smb.'s happiness, smb.'s excellent manners, smb.'s wit, the colour of her eyes, the beauties of nature, etc.) замечать /видеть, отмечать/ его тонкий вкус и т.д.; he pretended not to observe it он сделал вид, что не заметил этого; didn't you observe the difference? разве вы не увидели /не заметили/ разницы? did you observe her reaction to the question? вы обратили внимание на ее реакцию /на то, как она реагировала/ на этот вопрос?

3) observe smth. observe laws (religious rites, customs, etc.) соблюдать законы и т.д., придерживаться законов и т.д., be careful to observe all the rules смотрите, соблюдайте все правила; you must observe proprieties ты должен соблюдать правила приличия; observe silence хранить молчание; observe a habit (a practice, a method, a principle of action, a manner of life, a command, etc.) следовать привычке и т.д.; observe a holiday (Christmas Day, an anniversary, smb.'s birthday, etc.) отмечать праздник и т.д.
4. IV
1) observe smth., smb. in some manner observe smth., smb. closely (attentively, curiously, anxiously, patiently, etc.) пристально и т.д. следить /наблюдать/ за чем-л., кем-л., вести тщательное и т.д. наблюдение за чем-л., кем-л.; he idly observed the passers-by in the street он рассеянно следил /наблюдал/ за прохожими на улице

2) observe smth. in some manner smth. conscientiously (meticulously, strictly, minutely. faithfully, religiously, etc.) добросовестно и т.д. соблюдать что-л. /придерживаться чего-л./; he scrupulously observed all the rules он самым тщательным образом соблюдал все правила
5. VII
observe smb. do smth. observe him buy the paper (leave the room, draw the curtain, open the window, etc.) видеть /следить за тем/, как он покупает газету и т.д.; I have never observed him do otherwise я никогда не видел, чтобы он поступал по-другому, the students were observing bacteria multiply under the microscope студенты наблюдали размножение бактерий под микроскопом
6. VIII
observe smb. doing smth. observe him trying to open the window (trying to force the lock of the door, etc.) видеть /наблюдать за тем/, как он пытается открыть окно и т.д.
7. XI
be observed doing smth. he had been observed gazing at the shop-window (leaving the house, talking to her, etc.) видели, как он разглядывал витрину магазина и т.д. ; be observed from smth. it will be observed from these figures that... из этих цифр видно, что...; observed from this point of view если рассматривать с этой точки зрения...;
8. XVI
observe on smth. observe on the fact (on the circumstances, on the event, etc.) высказаться /сделать замечание/ по поводу этого факта и т.д.; по one has observed on this никто не упоминал об /не останавливался на/ этом
9. ХХI1
observe smth. in (on) smth. observe a discrepancy in his theory (some contradiction in the writings of different authors, considerable variation on the problem, moderation in what he said, etc.) видеть /находить, усматривать/ непоследовательность в его теории и т.д.
10. XXV
1) observe [that...] observe that it has grown Golder (that he was very pale, etc.) заметить /обратить внимание/, что стало холоднее и т.д.; you will observe there is mistake in the account вы увидите, что в счетах есть ошибка

2) observe that... allow me to observe that you've been taken in позвольте мне заметить, что вас обманули; he very truly observed that... он очень верно заметил, что... abs "You're late", he observed "Вы опоздали", observe-заметил он
11. XXVII1
observe on what... I have very little to observe on what has been said я почти ничего не могу сказать по поводу того, о чем здесь говорилось
12. XXVII2
observe to smb. that... he observed to them that it was late он заметил, обращаясь к ним, что уже поздно

English-Russian dictionary of verb phrases > observe
17 squares

квадратная сталь between treatment sum of squares ≈ сумма квадратов между условиями испытаний (в факторном эксперименте) block sum of squares ≈ сумма квадратов для блоков corrected sum of squares ≈ исправленная сумма квадратов crude sum of squares ≈ приближенная сумма квадратов difference of two squares ≈ разность квадратов двух чисел error sum of squares ≈ сумма квадратов ошибки interaction sum of squares ≈ сумма квадратов для взаимодействия law of least squares ≈ правило наименьших квадратов least squares correlation ≈ корреляция по методу наименьших квадратов least squares criterion ≈ критерий наименьших квадратов least squares estimate ≈ оценка (методом) наименьших квадратов least squares fitting ≈ выравнивание методом наименьших квадратов least squares formula ≈ формула наименьших квадратов least squares minimization ≈ минимизация методом наименьших квадратов least squares solution ≈ решение методом наименьших квадратов method of least squares ≈ метод наименьших квадратов ordinary least squares method ≈ обычный метод наименьших квадратов orthogonal least squares estimator ≈ оценка по методу ортогональных наименьших квадратов principle of least squares ≈ принцип наименьших квадратов regression sum of squares ≈ регрессионная сумма квадратов restricted least squares classical estimator ≈ ограниченная классическая оценка по методу наименьших квадратов restricted least squares weighted by mean estimator ≈ ограниченная оценка по методу наименьших квадратов, взвешенная по среднему sum of squares for contrasts ≈ сумма квадратов для контрастов (в факторном эксперименте) technique of least squares ≈ метод наименьших квадратов theor of least squares ≈ теория наименьших квадратов unadjusted sum of squares ≈ нескорректированная сумма квадратов weighted least squares estimator ≈ оценка по методу взвешенных наименьших квадратов - concentric squares - lattice of squares - magic squares - orthogonal squares - quadrilateral of squares - sum of squares - table of squares Квадраты(площади)

Большой англо-русский и русско-английский словарь > squares
18 effect

effect

n
действие, воздействие, эффект; влияние; следствие, результат; производительность

- effects of age
- effects of earthquake
- effect of end conditions
- effect of moisture changes
- effect of restraint
- effect of support settlement
- effect of temperature
- effect of temperature difference
- adverse effect
- adverse health effects
- backwater effect
- Bauschinger effect
- borehole effect
- boundary effect
- ceiling effect
- chimney effect
- climate effect
- Coanda effect
- combined effect
- combined effects of settlement and creep
- dehumidifying effect
- detrimental effect
- earthquake effect
- edge effect
- elevator effect
- environment effects on construction productivity
- fly ash effect on concrete properties
- frost effect
- greenhouse effect
- humidifying effect
- inertia effects
- insulating effect
- long-term effects
- microsilica effect on concrete properties
- mottle effect
- negative effect
- notch effect
- principle effect of the admixture
- radiation effects
- scale effect
- seasonal effect
- sensible cooling effect
- silo effect
- stack effect
- stiffening effect
- stiffening effects of floors
- sun effect
- thermal effect of building materials
- thermal effect of ceiling height
- thermal effect of roof types
- thermal effect of windows
- time-dependent effect
- total cooling effect
- weather effects on use of bond breaker
- wobble effect
- zero curtain effect

Англо-русский строительный словарь. — М.: Русский Язык. С.Н.Корчемкина, С.К.Кашкина, С.В.Курбатова. 1995.

Англо-русский словарь строительных терминов > effect
19 module

1) модуль

2) автономный отсек КЛА
3) блок-комната
4) узел
– adapter module
– airlock module
– bigraded module
– ceramic-base module
– command module
– control module
– cordwood module
– crossed module
– descent module
– difference module
– discrete-component module
– docking module
– double-ended module
– encase module
– factor module
– honeycomb module
– hypercohomology module
– hyperhomology module
– landing module
– lunar module
– MERA module
– microminiature module
– mold module
– orbital module
– pellet module
– plug-in module
– preassembled module
– quotient module
– seal module
– single-sided module
– stacked module
– thermoelectric module
– thin-film module
– transfer module

field-assembled boiler module — монтажный котельный блок

finitely spanned module — <math.> модуль конечнопорожденный

integrated circuit module — интегральный модуль

line interfase module — линейный интерфейсный модуль

module of container dimensions — модуль размеров тары

peleet microminiature module — плоский микромодуль

principle of module design — <aeron.> принцип агрегатный

shop-assembled boiler module — заводской котельный блок

Англо-русский технический словарь > module
20 NDP

1) Американизм: Non Democratic Party

2) Военный термин: National Disclosure Policy, Naval Doctrine Publication, Navy Department Personnel, night defensive positions

3) Техника: Na-K disposal plant, night driving periscope, numerical data processor

4) Шутливое выражение: Newly Democratic Patio, No Democratic Process, No Difference Party, The Now Dead Party

5) Юридический термин: No Due Process

6) Грубое выражение: No Damn Party, No Damn Profit, No Darn Principle

7) Политика: National Democratic Party, New Democrat Party, New Democratic Party, New Direction Party, No Direction Party

8) Сокращение: New Democratic Party ( Canada)

9) Физика: Neutron depth profiling

10) Электроника: New Device Products

11) Вычислительная техника: Numeric Data Processor, New Democratic Party (Canada)

12) Нефть: non-dispersed, dual-action polymer

13) Бурение: недиспергирующийся полимер двойного действия (non-dispersed, dual-action polymer)

14) ЕБРР: net domestic product

15) Автоматика: normal diametral pitch

Универсальный англо-русский словарь > NDP

Страницы

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